Lecture 14 and 15: Conquest of Sikhs

For UPSC & UGC NET Exam

1. Origin and Growth of Sikhism

• Founder: Sikhism was born at a time of growing conflict between Hinduism and Islam in India. Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, is generally depicted as a reconciler of these two conflicting traditions — this is how he is still fondly remembered in Punjab.

• Offshoot of Bhakti Movement: Early chronicles describe Sikhism as an offshoot of the Bhakti movement; some modern Western scholars instead place it within the Indian Sant tradition.

• Distinct Identity: Despite this Bhakti influence, a careful study of Sikh religion and philosophy shows it had distinct features of its own.

• Cardinal Principle: Reverence for the Guru (Preceptor) is the cardinal quality in the Sikh faith, and devotion to the Guru's teachings is a sacred duty. Great emphasis is placed on moral and spiritual values — honesty, sharing, and doing away with distinctions of high/low, rich/poor.

2. Guru Tradition in Sikh Community

2.1 Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

• Life: Born into a Hindu family in the village of Talvandi, belonging to a Muslim zamindar, 65 km from Lahore.

• Janamsakhis: The first written account of Nanak's life — birth stories in prose, written in the Gurumukhi alphabet, developed and refined by Nanak himself.

• Three factors settled by his death:

  1. 974 hymns composed by Nanak — origin of the Adi Granth

  2. A well-knit community with an ideology

  3. A well-established guru tradition

Influence of Guru Nanak on the Sikh Community:

• Ideas of Equality: Repudiated idol worship; did not favour pilgrimage; did not accept incarnation, formalism, ritualism, or the caste system and its inequality.

• Liberalism: Open-minded, free from superstitions, practical in approach.

• Langar: Started Guru Ka Langar — a common kitchen serving food to everyone without discrimination.

• Equality of Women: Emphasized equality of women; rejected renunciation and the authority of the Vedas.

• Principles: Sat (truth), Halal (lawful earning), Khair (wishing well of others), Niyat (right intention), and service of the Lord.

2.2 Guru Angad (Guru, 1539–52)

• The Second Guru: Evolved the distinct Gurmukhi script ("from the mouth of the Guru") — became the sole medium for sacred Sikh writings.

• Guru Granth Sahib: Compiled Nanak Dev's writings into the Guru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi script; also composed the Janam Sakhi (biography of Nanak).

• Popularised Guru ka Langar: Expanded the institution started by Guru Nanak.

2.3 Guru Amar Das (Guru, 1552–74)

• New Institutions: Started the Manji and Piri system.

• Institutionalization: Each Piri = a missionary seat + administrative unit (propagated Sikhism among women); a parallel Manji system did so among men.

• Hereditary Guruship: Strengthened Guru Ka Langar; made the Guru's position hereditary.

• Visit of Akbar: Tradition holds Emperor Akbar had to eat in Langar seated in one line with nobles and servants.

• Marriage System: Introduced Anand Karaj marriage ceremony, replacing the Hindu form.

• Yearly Gatherings: Established twice-yearly disciple gatherings to foster fraternity.

• Social Reforms: Fully abolished Sati and purdah among Sikhs.

2.4 Guru Ram Das (Guru, 1574–81)

• Foundation of Amritsar: Later developed as the spiritual capital of the Sikh faith.

• Masand System: Started the system (later developed by the fifth Guru) — a Masand acted as representative + tithe collector, converted people officially, and collected Dasvandh (10% tax).

• Construction of Harmandir Sahib: Began work on the Golden Temple; Mian Mir (a Muslim Sufi) laid the foundation stone.

2.5 Guru Arjan (Guru, 1581–1606)

• Adi Granth Compilation: Finished in 1604; also wrote Sukhmani ("palm of peace").

• Finished Harmandir Sahib Construction: Completed Amritsar's Sri Darbar Sahib/Harmandar Sahab (the Golden Temple).

• Shaheedan-de-Sartaj: Executed on Jahangir's orders — became the first great martyr in Sikh history; praised as "the crown of martyrs."

2.6 Guru Hargobind (Guru, 1606–44)

• Miri and Piri: Developed royal authority + maintained an army. Started the concept of "Mir and Pir" (temporal + spiritual authority) on 12 June 1606.

• Soldier Saint: First Guru to take up arms; waged wars against Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

• Akal Takht: Built the "Throne of the Immortal" as the centre of Sikh temporal authority.

2.7 Guru Har Rai (Guru, 1644–61)

• Son of Guru Hargobind's eldest son; became Guru at age 14.

• War of Succession: Amid the war between Dara (eldest son of Shah Jahan) and Aurangzeb, gave shelter to Dara Shikoh, who was later persecuted by Aurangzeb.

• Missionary Focus: Cautiously avoided conflict with Aurangzeb; devoted efforts to missionary work.

2.8 Guru Har Kishan (Guru, 1661–64)

• Contemporary of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

• Framed on charges of anti-Islamic blasphemy.

• Cured smallpox victims in Delhi — remembered in daily Sikh prayer as one whose sight dispels all miseries.

2.9 Guru Teg Bahadur (Guru, 1664–75)

• Conflict with Aurangzeb: Vigorous Islamisation, compulsory jizya on non-Muslims, forcible conversions — gave rise to civil war.

• Martyrdom: Imprisoned; refused conversion; martyred — a brave act of sacrifice for religious freedom and liberty.

• Established the town of Anandpur.

2.10 Guru Gobind Singh (Guru, 1675–1708)

• Khalsa Panth: Founding the Khalsa + installing the Adi Granth as Guru Granth Sahib — his two most important decisions.

• Militant Ideology: Restorer of dharma; identified the sangat-guru as True Guru. War cry "Raj Karega Khalsa" (Banda Singh, 1710).

• Built Forts (1688–90, foothills of Anandpur-Kiratpur): Anandgarh, Keshgarh, Lohgarh, Fatehgarh.

• Transfer of Guruship: Last human Guru; passed Guruship to the Guru Granth Sahib; declared no individual would again be Guru.

• Slogan: "Wahe Guruji ka Khalsa, Wahe Guruji ki Fateh."

3. Sikh Scripture: Guru Granth Sahib

• Poems: Adi Granth contains poems of the first five Gurus:

• Other Composition: Also incorporates poems by Hindu bhaktas/Muslim saints — Kabir, Namdev, Trilochan Sein, Ravidas, Jaidev.

4. Important Aspects of Sikhism

• Community Aspect: Institutions like Gurdwara, Guru, Sangat, Langar, Dharamsala encourage community worship and model an egalitarian society.

• Gurdwara: Central institution; term first used by Guru Hargobind — "home/abode" of the Guru where the Guru Granth Sahib is installed.

• Golden Temple

• Akal Takht: Founded by Guru Hargobind opposite the Golden Temple; introduced a military set-up in the Sikh community.

• Panj Takht — five Gurudwaras of special significance:

  1. Akal Takhat Sahib (Golden Temple)

  2. Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib — Anandpur Sahib, Punjab

  3. Takht Sri Damdama Sahib — Talwandi, near Bhatinda

  4. Takht Sri Patna Sahib — Patna city

  5. Takht Sri Hazur Sahib — Nanded, Maharashtra

• Guru (Divine Preceptor): Literally "one who removes darkness" — an enlightener.

• Sikh Philosophy and Beliefs: One God (Ek Onkar — "Ek" = One, "Onkar" = God), same for all religions. Condemns blind rituals (fasting, pilgrimage, superstition, worship of the dead, idol worship). Preaches equality of all races, religions, sexes — full equality of men and women.

• Sangat (Holy Congregation): Far-reaching social implications — inculcates brotherhood, promotes equality, provides opportunity for seva (service).

• Dharamsala (Place to Practice Righteousness): Enjoined by Guru Nanak for recitation/contemplation of bani; provided accommodation/food to wayfarers; precursor to the modern Gurdwara (which emerged once Guru Granth Sahib began to be installed).

Important Duties of Sikhs:

• Nam Japna: Keeping God in mind at all times.

• Kirat Karna: Earning an honest living.

• Vand Chhakna: Sharing one's earnings — charity and caring for others.

5. Challenges Faced by Sikh Community

• Mughal-Sikh Relationship: Varied by reign — Jahangir persecuted the Gurus; Akbar was friendly; Shah Jahan hostile; Aurangzeb intensified enmity. Fluctuated per the demands of the moment.

• Challenges from Hill Rajas: Battle of Bhangani — Guru Gobind Singh vs Raja Bhim Chand of Bilaspur. Ajmer Chand (Bhim Chand's son), seeking to evict the Guru, allied with hill monarchs + Aurangzeb, attacking Anandpur in 1700, 1703, 1705. Continued until Raja Ranjeet Singh subdued them.

• Agrarian Challenges: Sikhism's backbone = Jat peasantry. Mughal land revenue system was biased against non-Muslims → discontent → increased agrarian support for Sikh Gurus. Jats, Khatris, etc. formed a significant part of the Khalsa.

6. Khalsa

6.1 Foundation and Meaning

• Meaning: "To be pure, to be clear, to be free from" — refers to both the Sikh faith-community and a special group of initiated Sikhs.

• Foundation: Initiated 1699 by Guru Gobind Singh Ji; celebrated during Vaisakhi.

• Aim of Creation: A warrior body with a duty to protect the innocent from religious persecution.

• A New Tradition: Formulated an initiation ceremony (amrit pahul/nectar ceremony) and rules of conduct.

• Political Factor: New institution for temporal leadership, replacing the masand system; gave the Sikh community a political + religious vision.

6.2 Need of the Khalsa

• Guru Arjan Dev (5th Guru) arrested and executed by Jahangir, 1606 → Guru Har Gobind militarised the Sikhs.

• 1675: Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th Guru, father of Gobind Singh) executed by Aurangzeb — for resisting persecution of non-Muslims and refusing conversion to Islam.

• Guru Gobind Singh's sons killed for refusing to convert.

• Animosity of the Hindu Community.

6.3 Code of Conduct for the Khalsa

• 5 K's:

  • Kesh — uncut hair

  • Kangha — a wooden comb

  • Kara — an iron/steel bracelet

  • Kirpan — a sword

  • Kachera — short breeches

• Denunciation of Caste System: No faith in caste; low-caste members admitted on terms of equality.

• Voice against Vices: Forbade tobacco, meat slaughtered per Muslim ritual, and intercourse with anyone other than one's spouse.

• Principle of Equality: Co-initiation of men and women across castes; Khalsa members agreed never to interact with followers of rivals or their successors.

6.4 The Khalsa after Guru Gobind Singh

• Banda Bahadur: Oct 1708 — Guru Gobind Singh deputed Banda Singh Bahadur to lead an uprising. He established a Sikh kingdom, broke up large estates, redistributed land to peasants; eventually defeated and executed, but became a Sikh icon.

• Dal Khalsa: After long exile, regrouped under Nawab Kapur Singh — a coalition army.

• Sikh Empire: Dal Khalsa fought Mughals + Afghans → rise of misls (autonomous confederacies) → later the Sikh Empire under Raja Ranjit Singh.

7. Punjab under Ranjit Singh and Afterwards (1792)

7.1 State of Politics in Punjab

• Weak Mughal authority + Ahmad Shah Abdali's invasions → confusion and anarchy.

• Abdali claimed Punjab, but his governors did little beyond collecting revenue.

• No Man's Land: His successors lost control → conditions favoured the rise of Sikh misls (military brotherhoods, democratic set-up).

• Misls: Numbered twelve; e.g., the Sukarchakyia misl, controlling territory between the Ravi and Chenab.

7.2 Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• Early Life: Born Gujranwala, 2 November 1780, son of Mahan Singh (leader of the Sukarchakyia misl).

• Control Over Administration: In 1797 took actual administration into his hands; authority then extended only over a few districts of the Rachna and Chaj Doabs.

7.3 Condition of Punjab

• North of Sutlej: Bhangi misl — most powerful, controlled Lahore and Amritsar.

• Kanheyas — ruled territories north of Amritsar.

• Ahluwalia misl — controlled the Jullundur Doab.

• South of Sutlej: Phulkian chiefs (Patiala, Nabha, Kaithal) — scattered territories, Sutlej to Jamuna.

• Afghan chiefs (under Kabul govt.) ruled Multan, Attock, Peshawar, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Kashmir, etc.

• Zaman Shah (grandson of Ahmad Shah Abdali) considered himself the rightful ruler of Punjab; led invasions to assert authority.

7.4 Expansion of Empire

• 1798: In return for services during Zaman Shah's invasion of Punjab, Ranjit Singh authorized to occupy Lahore.

• 1799: Occupied Lahore, ousting the Bhangi Sardars.

• 1805: Snatched Amritsar from the Bhangis — prestige considerably enhanced.

• Established authority over the entire Sutlej–Jhelum territory.

• 1806: Marched 20,000 men to Patiala; captured Dolandi, exacted tribute from Sahib Singh of Patiala; on the way back, conquered Ludhiana, Dakha, Raikot, Jagraon, Ghungrana.

7.5 British Intervention in Punjab Politics

• Imperialist Ambition: Desire for Cis-Sutlej territories brought Ranjit Singh face to face with the English East India Company.

• Refusal of Alliance with Maratha: 1805 — Jaswant Rao Holkar (pursued by Lord Lake) sought an alliance against the English at Amritsar; Ranjit Singh, focused on westward expansion, declined.

• Treaty of Friendship: 1 January 1806 — signed with General Lake; agreed to force Holkar out of Amritsar. Lake promised the English would never seize/sequester Ranjit Singh's possessions.

7.6 English Offensive Movement

• Commander David Ochterlony marched to Ludhiana; Feb 1809 — proclaimed Cis-Sutlej states under British protection, with any Lahore aggression to be met with arms.

• Treaty of Amritsar (25 April 1809):

  "Perpetual friendship shall subsist between the British Government and the state of Lahore; the former shall be considered, with respect to the latter, to be on the footing of the most favored powers and the British Government will have no concern with the territories and subjects of the Raja to the north of river Sutlej."

7.7 Immediate and Potential Effects of the Treaty

• Checked Ranjit Singh's ambition to rule the entire Sikh nation (east + west of Sutlej).

• Territorial and Economic Loss: Sutlej accepted as boundary — compromised political ideal + territorial/economic losses.

• Attention Towards West (per Cunningham): Treaty gave a "carte blanche" west of the Sutlej — Ranjit Singh captured Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), Peshawar (1834).

• Highlighted Weak Position: Brought the British close to the Lahore frontier — danger of war nearer.

• Gave the Company a degree of control over Ranjit Singh's relations with Sind, Bahawalpur, Afghanistan.

7.8 Estimates of the Relation

• Relations with the English marked by an "inferiority complex."

• Conscious of British imperialism's threat, but took no steps to organize a coalition of Indian princes or a balance of power.

• Postponed conflict by "grudgingly yielding at every step" — a poor statesman in this respect.

• N.K. Sinha: "In the last decade of his career Ranjit Singh is a pathetic figure, helpless and inert... He feared to expose the kingdom he had created to the risk of war and chose instead the policy of yielding, yielding and yielding."

8. Administration of Ranjit Singh

• Benevolent Despot: Lacked intellectual training/inclination for bold innovation; embodiment of all civil/political authority, yet looked to people's welfare.

• Servant of Khalsa: Considered himself a servant of the Khalsa/Sikh Commonwealth; government named 'Sarkar-i-Khalsaji'; coins struck in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.

• Council of Ministers: Assisted the Maharaja, though he remained the administrative pivot.

• Design of Kingdom: Provinces (under a Nazim) → districts (under a Kardar) → villages (Panchayats functioning effectively).

8.1 Land Revenue

• Main source of state income; collected with great severity.

• State demand: 33%–40%, depending on soil fertility/richness.

• Sir Lepel Griffin: The Maharaja "squeezed out of the unhappy peasant every rupee that he could be made to disgorge" but took care not "to kill the goose that lay the golden egg."

• Protection to Peasantry: Instructed marching armies not to destroy standing crops.

8.2 Justice

• Rough and ready; no hierarchy of courts — more a local than national concern; local officers decided by local custom.

• Adalat-i-Ala: Set up at Lahore, likely heard appeals from district/provincial courts.

• Fines: Excessive, depending on offender's means; even heinous crimes forgivable via money payment — justice viewed as a source of state income.

8.3 Military Administration

• European Modeled Army: Built on the Company's pattern; French officers recruited to drill/discipline troops.

• Emphasis on the artillery department — workshops at Lahore and Amritsar for casting heavy guns, manufacturing shot and powder.

• 'Mahadari' system: Monthly salary payments to soldiers/officers; careful attention to equipment and mobilization.

• New Army: Fauj-i-Khas (Model Army) raised 1822 by General Ventura and Allard.

  • Own emblem; French words of command in drill.

  • Strength: 4 battalions of infantry + 3 regiments of cavalry + artillery wing.

  • Ilahi Baksh headed the artillery department.

• Employment of Europeans: 39 foreign officers at one time — Frenchmen, Germans, Americans, Greeks, Spaniards, Russians, Scotch, Englishmen, Anglo-Indians.

• Successes: Effective against the Afghans, Gorkhas, and Dogras; even baffled the British in the two Sikh wars.

8.4 Limitations of His Reign

• Over Centralisation: All administration concentrated in his hands — his death caused not a "vacancy" but a "void"; the structure began to crumble.

• Problem in Army: Failed to subordinate the army to civil authority — army stayed controlled only through his personal influence; afterward it got out of control, dabbled in politics, reduced civil government to a "mere non-entity."

• Incapable Successors: Did not instil unifying sentiment among his people — left the inevitable fight with the English to weak, incompetent successors.

8.5 Historiography

• G.L. Chopra: Ranjit Singh as a "State in person" — more true of him than of other despots; his death was certain to bring rapid paralysis of central authority.

• N.K. Sinha: The one great external cause of Ranjit Singh's failure lay in his relations with the British Government.

9. Punjab after the Maharaja

9.1 Rise of the Khalsa Army

• Anarchy and confusion; real power passed to the Khalsa army (40,000 soldiers left behind) — a great drain on state resources.

• Interference of Army in Politics: Unpaid soldiers got out of control, bargained with rival royal claimants for salary increases.

• Formation of Panchayats: Soldiers formed their own advisory councils — decided independently whether to proceed on expeditions.

• Role of Kingmakers: Army got the upper hand everywhere, eclipsing civil authority.

9.2 Incapable Successors

• Naonihal Singh: Ablest successor — restored law/order; reduced hill states of Mandi and Suket; captured Ladakh + parts of Baltistan; watched English activity closely.

• Court Rivals: After his death, Dogras and Sindhanwalias became kingmakers, backing rival claimants for army support via salary promises.

• Sher Singh: Backed by the Dogras; proclaimed Maharaja, January 1841.

• Wazir: Dogra Dhian Singh became Wazir; Sindhanwalia sirdars took refuge with the British.

• September 1843: Ajit Singh Sindhanwalia treacherously shot dead the Maharaja and killed Dhian Singh. Dhian Singh's son Hira Singh avenged this by killing Sindhanwalia sirdars Lehna Singh and Ajit Singh.

• Dalip Singh: Proclaimed Maharaja (Sept 1843), a minor, with Rani Jindan as regent, Hira Singh Dogra as Wazir.

• Court Intrigues: Lal Singh (Rani Jindan's lover) became Wazir, September 1845; Teja Singh — new Commander of forces.

10. First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)

10.1 Causes

• Attributed to the Sikh army crossing the River Sutlej, 11 December 1845 — seen as aggressive, giving the English justification for war. Deeper causes:

  • Anarchy in Lahore following Ranjit Singh's death → power struggle (court vs. increasingly local army).

  • Sikh army's suspicion arising from English annexation of Gwalior and Sindh (1841) + Afghanistan campaign (1842).

  • Rising numbers of English troops near the Lahore border.

10.2 Course of War

• Began December 1845: British — 20,000–30,000 troops; Sikhs — ~50,000 men under Lal Singh.

• Treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh caused five successive defeats to the Sikhs.

10.3 Treaty of Lahore (8 March 1846)

• War indemnity of more than 1 crore rupees to the English.

• Jalandhar Doab (between Beas and Sutlej) annexed to Company dominions.

• British Resident established at Lahore under Henry Lawrence.

• Sikh army's strength reduced.

• Daleep Singh recognised as ruler — Rani Jindan as regent, Lal Singh as Wazir.

• Kashmir (incl. Jammu) sold to Gulab Singh (Rs 75 lakh to the Company) — as Sikhs couldn't pay the full indemnity.

• Transfer of Kashmir formalized by separate treaty, 16 March 1846.

10.4 Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846)

• Sikh dissatisfaction over Kashmir → rebellion → Treaty of Bhairowal, 22 December 1846.

• Rani Jindan removed as Regent: Council of Regency set up — 8 Sikh sardars, presided over by Henry Lawrence.

11. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

11.1 Causes

• Humiliation from Lahore/Bhairowal treaties + inhuman treatment of Rani Jindan (sent to Benares as a pensioner) → resentment.

• Revolt of Governor of Multan: Immediate occasion — revolt of Mul Raj, Governor of Multan.

• Rise in Revenue: 1846 — Mul Raj asked to pay 20 lakh rupees nazrana + surrender land north of the Ravi; revenue to rise ~one-third for 3 years.

• New Governor: Mul Raj resigned, December 1847. New Resident Fredrick Currie (arrived Lahore, March 1848) sent Kahan Singh Man as new Governor of Multan.

• Rise of People: Rude behaviour of Vans Agnew and Lt. Anderson provoked rebellion — Mul Raj forced to lead it.

• National Uprising: Chattar Singh (Governor of Hazara) revolted in August; his son Sher Singh (sent to besiege Multan) crossed over to the rebels with his entire army.

11.2 Course of War

• Battle of Ramnagar: Lord Gough's army crossed the Ravi, 16 November — indecisive.

• Multan surrendered, January 1849; Sikh defeat at Chillianwala weeks later.

• Lord Dalhousie proceeded to Punjab personally — three important battles fought before final annexation.

11.3 Result — Annexation of Punjab

• Maharaja Daleep Singh signed the document of annexation, 29 March 1849 — Punjab became a Province of the East India Company.

• Daleep Singh granted a pension of 4–5 lakh rupees annually; deported to England.

• Board of Governor: Three-member board (Lawrence brothers + Charles Mansel).

  • 1853: Board nullified — Punjab placed under a Chief Commissioner; John Lawrence became the first.

12. Reasons for Annexation of Punjab

• Immediate Pretext: Rebellion of two Sikh governors — Diwan Mul Raj (Multan) and Sardar Chattar Singh Atariwala + son Raja Sher Singh (Haripur).

• Imperialist Policy of Lord Dalhousie: A great imperialist — never missed a chance to annex an Indian state; sought an All-India Empire. Punjab's fate after Ranjit Singh was "foredoomed" by neo-Victorian Imperialism.

• Strategic Location: British wanted a safe North-West frontier; Punjab as a buffer state (British India–Afghanistan–Persia). Instability after Ranjit Singh's death made this urgent.

• Compensating Lost Prestige: First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42) debacle → humiliation + setback to British invincibility → need for a compensatory conquest (Sindh first, Punjab next).

• Commercial Consideration: Indus river linked Punjab to the sea route — important trade + military route; fertile land valuable for revenue and plantation.

12.1 Annexation: Sacred Breach of Trust

• Major Evans Bell: Described annexation as inexpedient and avoidable — "the annexation of the Punjab was no annexation, it was a sacred breach of trust."

• British Resident as De Facto Ruler: Since the Treaty of Bhairowal (22 Dec 1846), the Resident was the internal ruler of Punjab, exercising civil/administrative powers in the minor Maharaja's name.

• Rebellion of Army: It was the Sikh army — not the Maharaja or Council of Regency — that rebelled. Fredrick Currie's duty (as Regent) was to suppress the rebellion, not annex the kingdom.

• Since the Maharaja wasn't responsible for the rebellion, depriving him of his kingdom was unjust.

• Acting Guardian: The Company (via the Resident) was acting as guardian of the minor Maharaja — annexing the ward's kingdom was, evidently, a sacred breach of trust.

13. Chronological Snapshot of All Events